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14th (01/29/2007) Construction and function of the eye

- Bau und Funktion des Auges -

Die Linse ist ein klarer, elastischer, konvex gekrümmter Körper ( lens crystallina ) --> diese Sammellinse bündelt das durch die Pupille eintretende Licht an der Hinterseite des Auges, sprich es entsteht ein scharfes Bild auf der Netzhaut.

Sehnerv : s-förmiger Verlauf in der Augenhöhle ermöglicht Anpassung an extreme Augenbewegungen. Nach/beim Austritt der Augenhöhle ist der Sehnerv vom Sehnervkanal umgeben. Die Sehnnerven k reuzen sich = Sehnervenkreuzung (linkes Auge -> rechte Gehirnhälfte)

Makula : für die Scharfstellung zuständiger Bereich des Auges (gelber Punkt) der seitlich vom Sehnervaustritt sitzt und nur aus Sehzapfen besteht.

Papille : Der Bereich der Netzhaut (stark durchblutet) an dem sich die Nervenfasern der Netzhaut, nach Verlassen des Augapfels, zum Sehnerv bilden.

Pupille : Die Blende. Die auf die Netzhaut gelangenden Lichtstrahlen werden durch reflektorische Verengen und Erweitern reguliert. Sie ist das Sehloch in der Regenbogenhaut des Auges und erscheind schwarz.

Iris (Regenbogenh aut) : Regelung des Lichteinfalls. Grundsätzlich All eyes are blue, other colors are caused only by different pigmentation.

retina: light and color stimuli are recorded and transmitted to the brain via nerve Sehn. To do this requires the eye can rods and cones . The 100 million rods are active in low light stimuli. So they are very light sensitive, but have color vision. The approximately 6 million cones are located mainly in the center of the retina. They occur in intense light stimuli in force and are responsible for color vision.
They are divided into three types:
Blue cones respond to particular wavelengths react from 400 nm to 540 nm (blue region)
Green suppositories in particular wavelengths react from 450 nm to 640 nm (green area)
Red suppositories in particular wavelengths of 550 nm to 700 nm (red region)


Zilarmuskel : With tension he moves the lens ligaments of the lens and is thus responsible for local and remote settings

lens bands : changing the curvature of the lens.

tears : Ist für die Befeuchtung, die Desinfizierung und die Säuberung zuständig. Weiters versorgt sie die Hornhaut mit Nährstoffen und entfernt Stoffwechselprodukte.

Wimpern und Augenbrauen : Schutz der Augen vor Schmutz, Schweiß, Staub und zu intensiver Lichteinstrahlung.

Augenlid : Benetzung der Hornhaut mit Tränenflüssigkeit und Schutz durch Schließen vor Verletzungen und vor plötzlicher Lichteinstrahlung.

Augenhaut :
äußere Augenhaut/ weiße Sklera --> ist eine Lederhaut die den ganzen Augapfel umhüllt. Sie besteht aus festem Bindegewebe and goes to the cornea which is transparent and avascular.
mean eyeball -> consists of the iris with the pupil, the ciliary body and choroid. The choroid supplies through their blood vessels of the retina with nutrients and forms the lens mount.
inner eyeball -> consists of the eye (the Netzhautumkleidung)

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13th (01/22/2007) Structure of the nervous system: brain, spinal cord, somatic / vegetative nervous system

- THE NERVOUS SYSTEM -

movement is coordinated by the messaging system, ie the functions are coordinated. This messaging system called the nervous system.

It is an anatomical separation in the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and in the peripheral nervous system (the brain and spinal cord nerves springing + sequel in single nerve).

Central Nervous System -> brain (cerebrum, cerebellum, brain stem) + spinal cord Peripheral Nervous System -> brain nerve + peripheral nerves -> Arbitrary Nervous system (somatic nervous system) + involuntary nervous system (autonomic nervous system)

the peripheral nervous system is divided more times in the involuntary and voluntary nervous system. Arbitrary nervous system (motor nervous system) controls all voluntary muscle movement. The involuntary nervous system (autonomic nervous system) controls without the conscious participation of the various processes of our body (such as digestion, heartbeat, breathing ,...) given it requires two different systems, the sympathetic (stimulating and mobilizing functions) and the parasympathetic (calming and braking functions ).
















end : brain (central nervous system) sends impulses to the muscles (peripheral nervous system) which controls the functions of the body, not the free will subject (autonomic nervous system).

reflexes: the movements are man considered to be controlled by the voluntary nervous system (somatic nervous system), for example. I would like on a chair -> brain the appropriate commands to the appropriate nerve Next -> activation of the muscles needed to sit down.
reflex movements off the will, because voluntary movements may be too slow, for example. run in pain, the conservation movement very quickly.
pain stimuli are transmitted from the receptors (sensors) of the skin to the nerve and the nerve to the spinal cord. Now is the abbreviation, which is exactly where the stimulus is not transmitted to the brain, as usual, but reverted in the spinal cord to the motor nerves -> Hand immediately receives the appropriate signal. This is called reflex arc.

brain :
a. cerebrum
b. Diencephalon
c. Bar
d. thalamus, hypothalamus (hormones)
e. midbrain
f. pituitary (hormones)
g. cerebellum
h. bridge (Pons)
i. Extended Mark (medulla oblongata)
j. 4. Third ventricle
k.
l. ventricle aqueduct





areas of the brain: the cerebrum, cerebellum, medulla oblongata and bridge. The bar (corpus callosum) separates the right and left brain (hemispheres). Close insemination WITHIN COMPETENCE nerves.
Through various centers in the brain to control different abilities (eg speech, Feeling, memory, vision,). When a brain injury is able to be affected by different nerves that can cause various failures.
The brain is protected by the bony skull. Furthermore forked column three very fine membranes (solid mater, arachnoid membrane, pia mater), the brain from direct contact with the skull bone. Provides extra protection in the brain and spinal fluid (CSF) since.

spinal :
The spinal cord is responsible for signal transmission in the central nervous system.
It consists of Nerve cells forming a tissue strand that goes from the base of the brain into the area of the second or third lumbar vertebra.
In Mark lost sensory and motor nerve cells from the brain to the peripheral system and back. It has the function of the line. Only about 25 grams majority in the spinal cord is inside, this reduces the risk of injury. For violations of the cord can cause cognitive impairment or paralytic.
addition, it is responsible for the quick responses -> see reflections.

Sources:
http://neurologie.onlinehome.de/neukurs1.htm
http://www.medizinfo.de/kopfundseele/multiplesklerose/mnervensystem.htm
http://www.g-netz.de/Der_Mensch/nervensystem/rueckenmark.shtml

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Kommentare zu den Themen 7. - 12.

Due to diveren test, homework and the practice week, I had come Strak with biology topics in default.
But as promised, and a deal I was doing on vacation days and biology have the substance can aufholne ... even a week had good. It is also necessary to work the next school surge is around the corner.
Otherwise to say that I really noticed how much work the biology and catch up but that it is almost impossible if one has to make the school a lot. Say, can not meet the same holiday and we hardly ... unless you dispense with the personal life;) Say I do believe that this technique is only recommended for older students.
Topics include ecosystem was very interesting .... especially the deep sea, I found it really exciting!
blood (please pay special attention to the cool picture;)) was ok but not outstanding. Was to understand, however, because I had help from my friend.
breathing was ok.
What more detail bgesprechen want, I can not say exactly when elaboration was all very clear.

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8. (11.12.2006) Atmung/ Lunge

breathing - Lung

structure of the lung

The human lungs contain a right lung and left lung.
The lungs are divided by furrows, these subdivisions is then called lobes.
right lung -> 3 lobes
left lung -> 2 lobes (kleinere Hälfte)
Die Lungenlappen werden in 9 (links) bzw. 10 (rechts) Segmente unterteilt. Auf der linken Seite fehlt das siebente Segment um Platz für das Herz zu schaffen.

Lage : in Brusthöhle, Lungenspitze überragt das Schlüsselbein um ca. 3-4 cm, Lunge liegt am Zwerchfell (Lage passt sich an - liegen, sitzen, atmen) auf.

Bei der Aufspaltung der Luftröhre in die Hauptbronchien fällt der linke Luftröhren-Bronchien-Winkel ist kleiner ist als der rechte daher wird die rechte Hälfte besser belüftet bzw. auch, dass Schmutz und Verunreinigungen leichter in die rechte Lungenhälfte gelangen.

Ein durchschnittliches Lungenvolumen is 5-6 liters.


know Inside the lung, an air guiding system of tubes called the bronchi. These open into the alveoli (alveoli). Together they are called bronchial system. Furthermore, there is the pulmonary veins and Lungenaterien (see circulation).





breathing

flow:
- inhalation (through the intercostal muscles and diaphragm)
- Tensioning the external intercostal muscles (intercostal muscles) -> chest, we raised and extended
- expands the lung moves / with -> pressure in the lungs decreases
- fills the lungs sichmit air
- The expiration happens passively
- After Einamten is stretched, the lungs and returns automatically to its starting position
- Exhausted air flows from the body

air
Upper respiratory tract: nose, sinuses, throat
Lower respiratory tract: larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs

(Quelle: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunge )

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9. - 12. (15.1.) Blutkreislauf, Blutbestandteile, Blutgruppen + Immunsystem

Das Blut

Blutbestandteile

Wenn man das Blut zentrifugiert (mit hoher Geschwindigkeit schleudert) teilt es sich in zwei Phasen auf:

- Blutkörperchen, feste Bestandteile die etwa 40 - 45% des Blutvolumens ausmachen

- Blutplasma oder "Blutwasser", es ist der flüssige Teil und macht etwa 55 - 60% des Blutvolumens aus.

Beim Menschen macht die Blutmenge etwa 8% des Körpergewichtes aus (70kg -> 5-6 Liter).

Feste Bestandteile 42%:

- erythrocytes (red blood cells)

- leukocytes (white blood cells)

- platelets (platelet)

Cash components / blood plasma 58%:

- Water

- proteins (proteins)

- fat / sugar / Water

tasks of Blood:

- transport function (blood carries oxygen and nutrients)

- Defense function (Part of the blood cells are fighting immune cells that exogenous particles and Krankheitserrege)

seal (the ability of the clot)

- buffer function (changes in pH are stabilized by the blood enthaöltene buffer system)

blood cells:

erythrocytes (red blood cells): Transpotieren oxygen and carbon dioxide and have 99% of the volume fraction of blood cells inne.

Leukozyten (weiße Blutkörperchen): Sind für die Abwehr von Krankheitserregern und anderen körperfremden Stoffen zuständig

Thrombozyten (Blutplättchen): Sind an der Blutgerinnung beteiligt.

Blutkreislauf - Herz-Kreislauf-System

The cardiovascular system consists of the motor (heart) and from the transportation routes (blood vessels). The left ventricle pumps the blood through the aorta, arteries, arterioles and capillaries in the veins Kresilauf.Die collect it again and take it back to the left ventricle of the heart -> arteries leading away from the heart and veins carry back to the heart.

The human circulatory system consists of two parts: the systemic circulation and pulmonary circulation.

flow:

- left ventricle forces the blood into the aorta (largest artery of the human body)

- aorta was divided into the arteries

- arteries carry blood to the arteries (ie cause the oxygen-rich blood that the heart leads away)

- arteries branch out further and further down to the arterioles and these in turn to the capillaries

- The capillary can be exchanged oxygen and nutrients between tissues and blood

- capillary also provide the link between arteries and veins as

-venule collect the now dark and low in oxygen combine blood and to large veins

- all veins end in the two main veins (upper and lower vena cava) that the blood back to the left ventricular lead

- the right ventricle pushes blood into the pulmonary circulation (the same structure as the systemic circulation)

- in the pulmonary circulation is anger enriches the blood with oxygen again

- pulmonary veins carry the blood to the left ventricle and the ratio circuit bneginnt again

(transport are pulmonary veins are the only veins, the oxygen-rich blood!)

arteries and veins are both made of three layers - tunica interna, media and external - where the arteries thicker muscle layers than the veins. The veins need a certain flexibility to add more blood to.
Blood Transport works thanks to the heart, that means pressure pumping the blood through the body. To prevent the blood from the veins flows are back with flaps to prevent back flow.

blood groups

When different blood types are mixed together is often agglutination (sticking together) instead. Here one can already see that some blood types do not get along with each other.

The AB0 system

Everyone has one of the four blood types (A, B, AB, 0), means each of these groups a particular immunological status of the erythrocytes as, during these do not change a life and for certain patterns are inherited. Furthermore, there are the blood groups of various often re

intolerance table:

Im Blutplasma vom Menschen befinden sich Antikörper gegen die jeweils anderen Blutgruppen.

Blutgruppe A - Antikörper gegen Blutgruppe B (Anti-B)

Blutgruppe B - Anti-A

Blutgruppe 0 - Anti-A und Anti-B

Blutgruppe AB - frei von Antikörpern

Rhesus-System
The antibodies against the Rh factor D be made only if they come into contact with him (blood transfusions, pregnancy / birth).
If a rhesus-negative woman gets a rhesus-positive child and antibodies are present, may (at the birth of a previous child), there at the birth of the child to blood clots and thus cause his death. (Today is already made provisions WHILE the pregnancy is sprayed)

(Source: biology, anatomy, philosophy of Nicole Menche (Ed.), 5th ed, Urban & Fischer Verlag, ISBN 3-437-26800 - 7)

immune

As a defense against a variety of particle we need an immune system.

lymphocytes belong to the white blood cells are the immune cells of the human body. They are the smallest white blood cells (~ 25-40% of leukocytes). Where
remain about 95 percent of the bone marrow, spleen, tonsils, Peyer's patches and lymph node lymphocytes formed also stored there, that is only about 5% are in our blood, and these are abgegenben if necessary.

There are two types:

B lymphocytes (production in the bone marrow, as well as other immune cells)

T lymphocytes (precursor cells originate from bone marrow proliferation and development, then in the thymus. , spleen, tonsils and adenoids, the appendix of the cecum and lymph nodes)

Our immune system is also undergoing medical treatments, the foreign cells in den Organismus einführen. Ähnliche Gewebetypen sind daher von großer Wichtigkeit.

Antigen

Ist der Grud für die Bildung von Antikörpern, Sprich das Merkmal oder die Substanz. Diese befinden sich auf zum Beispiel: Bakterien, Viren und Körperzellen. Es gibt auch Antigene auf körpereigenen Zellen, wobei diese von Organismus als körpereigen anerkannt werden, sprich es werden keine Antikörper gebildet.

Alle sonstigen Antigene erkennt der Körper als fremd und bildet dem entsprechend Antikörper -> the immune system reacts!

antibodies

are formed of immune system proteins can bind in which the foreign body and they are disturbing.

flow:
- antigen is recognized as foreign

- immune cells antibodies (to match the antigen)
- combine antibodies with the foreign antigen

- form an antigen-antibody complex
- antigen antibody complex activates formation of other proteins

-> destruction of the foreign body

Or

- antigen-antibody complex signals immune cells that is a foreign substance in the body

- these cells destroy remove foreign matter and him out of the body

(Source: http://www.netdoktor.de/laborwerte/fakten/immunsystem/immunsystem.htm )

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7. (4.12.) Das Ökosystem

THE ECOSYSTEM

Def: The ecosystem designate the system in the living organisms and their environment (habitat) interact are, in other words it is the linkages between communities described in a certain habitat.

= ecosystem habitat (habitat) + biological communities (all the living beings)

ecosystems ...

... open : (exchange both energy and matter with its surroundings = living system) open systems

... dynamic : means that the system created by internal and external influences

... complex : they have different elements and structures which are connected by an ecological effects and interactions are .

... be described.

The abiotic and bibiotischen factors influence each other and change.

operating principles

The creatures of the biological community (community of organisms of different species) will affect the material cycle and affects the living organisms (abiotic factors).

types of organisms :

- primary producers (which form from inorganic substances and organic substances ... most energy plants and autotrophic bacteria)

- (feed on producers or other consumers admit, taking off more or less nutritious / energy substances) Consumer

- decomposers build (producers and consumers from including their faeces, mineralize them again to abiotic factors to them. .. bacteria, fungi ,...)

In an ecosystem, the river / course of substances trackable and quantifiable.

you influence each other. The limits are set there try out the two-way transition at the minimum.

Entwicklung von Ökosystemen

Ökosysteme sind dynamisch. Bei stabilen äußeren Einflüssen würden sie sich zu einem Klimaxstadium (höchste Entwicklungsstufe/ Endstadium) entwickeln. Dieser Verlauf passiert über verschiedene Stadien. Wenn dieses Klimaxstadium ungestört bleiben würde, würden sich dessen Bestandteile so beeinflussen, dass ein Gleichgewicht entstehen würde. Sprich eine Änderung würde erst wieder durch äußere Änderungen passieren können.

mosaic-cycle concept

occur in nature in an ecosystem mostly different stages next to each other. If lightning strikes in a forest, and suddenly overgrown field arises. By dynamism and pioneers of this part is repopulated.

Furthermore, some parts of ecosystems or species not durable climax. Say they are changing, even without environmental effects.

classification of ecosystems

Classification is performed by structure (residence or location sizes, space requirements, food levels) and dynamic (energy flow, biogeochemical cycles, succession).

further divided ecosystems in terms of their geographical distribution (= ecotope is the spatial extent and the non-living components).

overview of the ecosystems (ecotopes)

terrestrial ecosystems
- all climates : Moore swamp
- Arctic Climate: Antarctic land ice , tundra, taiga boreal coniferous forest
- temperate oceanic zone : deciduous hardwood forest mixed deciduous forest mixed mountain forest
- gemäßigt-kontinentale Zone : Waldsteppe, Steppe, Pampa
- alpine Zone : subalpiner Nadelwald, alpine Stufe, nivale Stufe
- mediterrane Zone : Hartlaubformationen
- Tropen : Wüsten ( Nebelwüste, Salzwüste), Savanne, tropischer Trockenwald ( trockener Monsunwald, Savannenwald, Dornwald), tropische Hochgebirge, quatoriale Zone (Tropen), tropischer Regenwald
aquatische Ökosyteme
- limnische Ökosyteme : stehende Gewässer, Fließgewässer
- marine Ökosyteme : Flach M eer, Hochsee, Tiefsee, Eismeer, Felsenküste Felswatt, Korallenriffe, Salzwiesen, Watten, Mangrovenwald Mangrovenwald

(Quelle der Übersich: http://www.uni-protokolle.de/Lexikon/Ökotop.html )

description of an ecosystem - deep

= light-contact parts of the ocean below 1000 meters. This description applies to 70% of the sea surface.

There are extreme conditions. No Primärprduktion by plants (no production of biomass) as due to lack of light exestieren no plants. Primary production occurs only Duch hydrothermal vents (water accumulation in rock strata that is liquid. It often contains large amounts of dissolved volcanic Gases and minerals. Upon cooling, the deposition of minerals) is also called "black smokers." -> See picture.

Although the conditions are very hostile to life here is a variety of wildlife.

food chain: predators - scavengers or bacteria

data

Temperature: -1 ° C to 4 ° C

No strong currents

fall decay products by exposed from the surface are the most important food source .

The surface of the deep sea (1000m measured depth) accounts for 62% of the earth's surface.

In the deep sea are important areas:
mid-ocean ridges - mountain system of the ocean
ocean basins - in all parts of the ocean present extensive and deep pools
deep-sea trenches - trenches (Witjastiefe 1 "11 034 m deep deepest position leather deep )

breakdown

two major areas:
The pelagic = habitat of the free water
- euphotic zone up to 200 m, well photographed
- Disphotische Zone thinned by 200 m to 1000 m, poorly Zone
- bathypelagic zone of 1000 m to 4000 m, lightless zone
- abyssopelagische zone of 4000 m to 6000 m
- zone of deep-sea trenches of 6000 m and deeper
the seafloor = Area of seabed
- bathyal of 200 m to 2000 / 3000 m continental slope of the continental shelf to deep sea level
- abyssal region from 2000/3000 m to 6000 m deep basin
- Hadalzone of 6000 m to approximately 10,000 m deep trenches

deep-sea fish = fish adapted to a life of less than 500m

The greatest depth in a fish sighted WAS was 10900m. With the time displayed by natural selection to adapt to this extreme environment instead.

As many deep-sea fish between the zones swim back and forth, the pressure differences are in balance. This occurs, for example, by a swim bladder which can be adjusted by inflating and deflating the pressure.

The fish in the low-light areas usually have large eyes in order to optimize the Lichtausbeiute. Do they live in total darkness, the eyes no longer function and regress over time. Many of them have additional light organs (by chemical reaction with the aid of symbiotic bacteria, light is generated). They meet Functions such as lighting of the environment, attracting prey and mating. For example, the deep-sea fishing (see picture above): its extension to the light organ, fish are attracted and swim dirket from its mouth.

reproduction is a difficult issue in the deep sea. Since the probability of a meeting of males and females of the same species is so small it does sometimes mean that the parasitic dwarf male with the female grows together, nourished by the blood stream and is limited to the role of sperm formation.

Source: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ã-kosystem + http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiefsee + http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiefseefische